Free download Solutions by Stephen K. Lower

Authors of:  Solutions by Stephen K. Lower

Stephen K. Lower

Table of Contents in Solutions by Stephen K. Lower

1 Solutions

2 Types of solutions

2.1 Gaseous solutions

2.2 Solutions of gases in liquids

2.3Solutions of liquids in liquids

2.4 Solutions of molecular solids in liquids .

2.5 Solutions of ionic solids in water .

3 Methods of expressing the concentration of a solution

3.1 “Parts-per” concentration .

3.2 Weight/volume and volume/volume basis .

3.3 Molarity: mole/volume basis .

3.4 Mole fraction: mole/mole basis

3.5 Molality: mole/weight basis .

4 Colligative properties: escaping tendency of the solvent

4.1 Vapor pressure of solutions: Raoult’s law .

4.2 Boiling point elevation

4.3Freezing point depression .

4.4 Colligative properties and molecular weight determinations

5Solutions of volatile substances

5.1 Solutions of volatile liquids

5.2 Distillation .

5.3Solutions of gases in liquids: Henry’s law

5.4 Raoult’s law and Henry’s law

6 Osmosis and osmotic pressure 19

6.1 Diffusion and osmotic flow

6.2 Osmotic pressure

6.3Effects of temperature and concentration on osmotic pressure .

6.4 Physiological aspects of osmosis

6.5 Molecular weight determination

7 Ions in aqueous solution 23

7.1 Water: a familiar but extraordinary liquid

Dipole moment of water .

Dielectric constant of water .

7.2 Ionic species in aqueous solutions

Hydration .

7.3Weak electrolytes .

Incomplete dissociation and ion-pair formation

7.4 Electrolytic solutions

Colligative properties of electrolytic solutions

How ions carry electricity through a solution .

Molar conductivity of solutions

5. **Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water**: Ionic solids, such as table salt (NaCl), dissolve in water by dissociating into their constituent ions. This type of solution plays a critical role in many biological and chemical processes, such as conductivity and osmosis.

Methods of Expressing Concentration

Concentration is a way of expressing the amount of solute present in a solution. Several methods are used to measure and express the concentration of a solution, each suited to specific types of solutions and processes:

1. **Parts-per Concentration**: This is a ratio of the solute’s mass to the mass of the entire solution. It is often used for dilute solutions, where the solute concentration is very small, like in environmental studies (parts per million or parts per billion).

2. **Weight/Volume and Volume/Volume Basis**: These methods express concentration by comparing the mass or volume of solute with the volume of the entire solution. For instance, a common medical solution, like saline, might be expressed as a percentage of salt by weight in water.

3. **Molarity**: Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. It is a widely used concentration measure in chemistry because it directly relates to the number of molecules or ions in a solution.

4. **Mole Fraction**: The mole fraction is a way of expressing concentration as a ratio of the moles of solute to the total moles of all substances in the solution. This method is important when dealing with gases and partial pressures.

5. **Molality**: Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is particularly useful when studying properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression since molality is not affected by temperature changes.

Colligative Properties

Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in a solution and not on their identity. These properties include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

1. **Vapor Pressure and Raoult’s Law**: Raoult’s Law explains that the addition of a non-volatile solute to a solvent decreases the solvent’s vapor pressure. This is because solute particles occupy space at the liquid’s surface, reducing the number of solvent molecules that can escape into the vapor phase.

2. **Boiling Point Elevation**: Adding a solute raises the boiling point of a solvent. This is due to the reduction in vapor pressure caused by the solute. The elevation of the boiling point is proportional to the concentration of solute particles.

3. **Freezing Point Depression**: Similar to boiling point elevation, the presence of a solute lowers the freezing point of a solvent. The magnitude of freezing point depression depends on the concentration of solute particles.

4. **Colligative Properties and Molecular Weight Determination**: These properties can be used to determine the molecular weight of solutes. For instance, freezing point depression and osmotic pressure measurements can provide data for calculating molar mass.

Solutions of Volatile Substances

Volatile substances evaporate easily, and solutions of such substances behave differently from those of non-volatile substances. Understanding their behavior helps in various applications, including distillation.

1. **Solutions of Volatile Liquids**: In these solutions, both solute and solvent can vaporize. Raoult’s law can still be applied, but the vapor pressures of both the solute and the solvent need to be considered.

2. **Distillation**: This is a separation technique based on differences in boiling points. Solutions of volatile liquids can be separated by heating the solution until one component vaporizes and then condensing the vapor back into liquid form.

3. **Henry’s Law**: This law describes the solubility of gases in liquids. It states that the concentration of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid. This principle explains why carbonated beverages go flat when opened—pressure is released, decreasing the gas solubility.

### Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane, driven by a concentration difference. Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop this flow. This phenomenon is critical in biological systems and industrial applications.

1. **Osmotic Flow and Diffusion**: Solvent molecules move from regions of lower solute concentration to regions of higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

2. **Osmotic Pressure**: This pressure is proportional to the solute concentration. It is a colligative property and can be used to determine the molar mass of solutes.

### Ions in Aqueous Solution

Water is a unique solvent due to its high dipole moment and dielectric constant, making it an excellent medium for dissolving ionic compounds.

1. Ionic Species in Solutions: When ionic solids dissolve in water, they dissociate into ions. These ions interact with water molecules, a process known as hydration.

2. Electrolytic Solutions: Solutions that contain ions can conduct electricity, and their conductivity depends on the concentration and mobility of the ions.

3. Colligative Properties of Electrolytes: Electrolytic solutions exhibit colligative properties that differ from non-electrolytic solutions due to the presence of multiple ions.

This overview of solutions highlights their complexity and relevance in both theoretical and applied chemistry. Understanding the properties of solutions and how they behave under various conditions is essential for predicting their behavior in different scientific and industrial contexts.

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